Summary of literary texts and key concepts of literature

  About the Poet : James Mercer Langston Hughes  (February 1, 1901 – May 22, 1967) was a multifaceted literary figure, who was an eminent Black American poet, a social activist, novelist, playwright, and a radical columnist. He hailed from Joplin  Missouri . He is also regarded as one of the earliest proponents of the literary genre, known as jazz poetry . Hughes is best known as one of the prominent figures of the Harlem Renaissance . Harlem, The Negro Speaks of Rivers, Dreams, I, Too, are some of his notable work of poetry.   About the Poem : The poem was first published in 1921. According to Hughes, the poem was written while he was seventeen and on a train crossing the river, Mississippi  on the way to visit his father in Mexico  in 1920. It is also said that he wrote the poem within ten or fifteen minutes. Summary: In this poem the poet recounts his experience of observing ancient rivers . Rivers have played considerably huge role in the development of human civilization. S

                                                         According to Cambridge Dictionary, the word fantasy denotes a ‘pleasant situation that you enjoy thinking about, but is unlikely to happen.’ In the context of literature, it is a type of story that delineates situations, completely different from real life, often involving magic. Unlike science fiction, in fantasy, there is no attempt on the part of the author to rationalize the plausibly unrealistic setting and incidents happening in the story with pseudo scientific principles. E.M.Forster in his Aspects of the Novel brilliantly captures the essence of this particular literary genre. Fantasy is a work of fiction with its own distinctive features. For the sake of demonstration, Forster selects two masterpieces, Laurence Sterne’s Tristram Shandy , and Her man Melville’s Moby Dick . Apart from the story, human feelings, and sense of value for the characters, intelligence and memory for the plot, in any form of fiction offers, F

  After a gap of ten years, the author starts the story of Harry Potter. He is eleven years old now. The memory of that night when Petunia Dursley found Harry at the doorstep of their house still haunted her. Dudley was grown into a ‘large blond boy’. There was no sign to prove Harry’s existence in the house. Harry used to do chores with his aunt. In the morning, Petunia would wake him up with her shrill voice. Harry would try to remember what he was dreaming about. Most of the time, he would dream about a flying motorcycle. His aunt used to use Harry as a helping hand during breakfast. The day was Dudley’s birthday and Petunia wanted to make sure that everything goes perfectly. Harry lived in a cupboard under the stairs which was full of spiders. He was kind of used to it.   Dudley was a pampered child, whose every demand was fulfilled by his parents, as any refusal could lead him to the display of severe tantrums. He was fat and hated exercise. He even used to abuse Harry physically,

The story begins with the introduction of the Dursley family, who lived in house number four, in Privet Drive. Mr. Vernon Dursley, the director of a firm named Grunning his wife Petunia, a homemaker, and their pampered and spoiled son Dudley lived a perfectly normal life. Mr. Dursley had a huge stature with a large mustache. Mrs. Dursley was a thin blonde woman with a long neck. Apparently, there was nothing unusual with the family. Especially, Petunia always tried to portray her family as the perfect one. She always tries to find out what is happening in her neighbour’s home. But, Petunia Dursley kept a secret. She had a sister, Lily potter, who was a wizard. She was married to James Potter, who was also a wizard and they had a son, named Harry.   On a dull , and grey morning, when apparently everything seemed normal, Mr. Dursley picked up his briefcase and got into his car. The first mysterious sign was a cat, who seemed to be reading a map .As he was stuck in the traffic jam, he

    Bildungsroman and Picaresque narrative, both are types of novels. Though, these two literary genres may appear to be the same and they have some similar features, but they are two distinct literary terms.   Bildungsroman can be loosely defined as formation novel or education novel. The term is of German origin. Generally, this particular type of novel deals with the account of a youthful development of the protagonist. It can be seen as a journey of the protagonist who finally achieves maturity, through the various ordeals of life. The story of the novel mainly focuses on the development of the protagonist’s mind and character, through varied experiences, and after undergoing spiritual crisis resulting in a successful recognition of self-identity.   Picaresque Novel emerged in the 16 th century in Spain. ‘Picaro’ is a Spanish word which means rogue. It narrates the story of a knave or picaroon, who lives by his wit, but lives a servile life and works for multiple masters. The

  The painters of the ancient era had a clear perception of real life and the nature of human suffering. They were well aware of the fact that common people are least bothered about the suffering of the great entities. This nonchalance and indifference on the part of the common people have been minutely portrayed by famous painters of the ancient ages. These painters have also reflected in their paintings, how people go on with their daily chores, while great incidents are happening right in front of them and people are suffering terribly when these tragedies befall them. Great souls are undergoing excruciating pain, the ordinary folks concentrate on dull duties without paying any heed to them. The poet takes three instances from three famous paintings of Pieter Brueghel, naming, The Census at Bethlehem , The Massacre of the Innocents, and Landscape with the Fall of Icarus .   In the poem, from line 3 to 8 , the poet describes the scene of the painting, The Census at Bethlehem

    About the poet: Wystan Hugh Auden ( 1907-1973) is considered one of the leading poets of the thirties.Among his best known poems,   "Funeral Blues"; which is based on the theme of love,   "September 1, 1939" on political and social themes,   and "The Shield of Achilles";   , The Age of Anxiety; based on cultural and psychological themes and on "For the Time Being" and "Horae Canonicae" religious themes .His work was inspired by the oeuvre of great literary figures like Hopkins and Eliot. The hollowness of the disintegrating, post war civilization , was also one of the major themes explored by Auden. He was an advocate of communism as well as Marxism. He revives the old concept that a writer is a professional craftsman who teaches and entertains, rather than expressing his personality which again contradicts the ‘egotistic sublime’ of the romantic poets. On the poem: This poem is a typical poem which on one hand, focuses on

Manfred is terrified to see the plumage on the miraculous casque shaking by the vibration of the trumpet’s sound. Father Jerome, formerly known as the count of Falconara is still standing by Manfred’s side, begging for his son’s life. In his bewildered state, Manfred asks Father Jerome, whether he has offended God by his deeds. Jerome replies that the heaven is no doubt displeased with his mockery of his servants .He should submit himself to the Church and stop the persecution of the innocent youth, Theodore. Manfred orders Jerome to   go and see who is at the gate. Meanwhile, Jerome confirms whether Manfred granted the release of Theodore. When Theodore is released, the father and his son are reconciled with tears in their eyes. Immediately, after Jerome goes to the gate to look into the matter. When Father Jerome returns, he informs that a herald from the knight of the Giagantic Sabre wants to speak with the usurper of Otranto. Though Manfred is terrified, he allows the emissary of

A courtier is a person designated to attend the royal court as a companion and adviser to the king or queen or prince. The Book of the Courtier is an Italian masterpiece written by Baldesar Castiglione, which comprises the opinions of various courtiers on multiple issues like the qualities of a perfect courtier, the qualities of a true prince, and ruler, true love, and beauty. It can be considered a courtesy book of the era. Written in 1507, the book incorporates conversations and diverse opinions of the courtiers of the court of Urbino, which continued for four consecutive nights. Apart from discussing about the ideal demeanour of a prince, or ruler and principles of a true courtier, they also focus on the concept of true love and the idea of beauty.   In the book four, the author recapitulated the discussion held on the previous evening. The author mourns the loss of three elegant courtiers whose untimely demise shook him to the core. Later, the discussion diverted to a new directi

After the series of horrible occurrences in the castle and the tragic and unfortunate incident death of Conrad, Matilda remains restless in her bed chamber throughout the night. Bianca, her maid, informs Matilda about Isabella’s mysterious disappearance. She becomes terribly worried about her. Bianca also tells her about the peasant’s failed attempt to escape from prison and that he has been captured by the attendants while trying to escape through the secret vault of the castle. Matilda comes to know about the supernatural appearance of the gigantic leg and foot, which has haunted the male attendant Diego, and chased him through the gallery chamber. A Chaplain is summoned in the castle and Bianca thinks that it is for Matilda’s marriage. After Conrad’s death, the only way to continue the family line is to marry Matilda, the sole surviving heir to the castle. Matilda loves her father even when Manfred has never displayed any sign of affection to her. She tries to rationalize Manfred’s

Manfred, the lord of the castle of Otranto is blessed with a son, Conrad and a daughter Matilda. Conrad is a fifteen year old young boy who is puny and of a sickly disposition. Matilda is a virtuous young woman of eighteen. Manfred prefers his son more than Matilda and never displays any sign of affection to her. Hippolita is a devout Christian and a pious lady who always supports her husband as a devoted wife is supposed to do.   Due to Hippolita’s sterility, she is unable to bear a child anymore. Conrad is marrying Isabella, the daughter of Marquis of Vicenza, Frederic, because it is the only way to produce an heir. There has been a prophecy that the true successor of the actual owner of the castle, Alfonso, the good will return to claim his right. Isabella’s father is assumed having died in the holy land, long ago. Isabella has already been delivered by her guardians into the hands of Manfred . She never had any special affinity towards his future husband, Conrad. To attend the m

INTRODUCTION : English poet William Cowper (1731-1800) reconstructed the famous story of Alexander Selkirk, who spent a segregated life for four years on a deserted island and later rescued by a British ship. The poem highlights the sorrow and solitude suffered by Selkirk during his stay on an isolated island. According to Cowper Selkirk (the persona conceived by the poet) regretted his decision later considering his wrong decision the sole cause of his misery. In this poem Cowper projects Selkirk’s reflection on the entire subject of solitude.   HISTORICAL ACCOUNT :   Alexander Selkirk (1676 -1721) was a Scottish sailor. He ran away to the sea and joined the privatizing expedition by William Dampier in 1703.Having quarreled with the captain, he was put ashore on one of the uninhabited  Pacific islands of Juan Fernandez in 1704 and he remained there until 1709 when he was rescued by Woodes Rogers. On his return, he met Richard Steele, who published the accounts of experiences in

The Gothic Novel emerged as a specific literary genre in the latter half of the 18 th century. These novels are marked with an atmosphere of supernatural occurrences, horror, mystery and suspense. The word Gothic originated from the early Germanic tribe, the Goths. Subsequently, the word came to signify anything medieval. During this period, a medieval type of architecture, characterized by the use of pointed arches, vaults, intricate recesses developed and became popular throughout the Western Europe. The term Gothic novel has an alternative term, the Gothic romance.   This literary genre was a product of an interest in the possibilities for emotional excitement by the ages of superstition and romance generated out of a growing interest in the “Gothic” It is a type of prose fiction pioneered by Horace Walpole with his novel The Castle of Otranto: A Gothic Story , published in 1764. Other successful practitioners of this literary genre were Mrs. Anne Radcliffe (1764-1823) The My

Utilitarianism is a theory proliferated from the ethical theories of the late 18 th century that advocated performing actions to maximize happiness and well being for the affected individuals. The major figures who propounded this philosophy were Jeremy Bentham(1748-1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). John Stuart mill possessed a ‘humane, analytic and lucid mind’ and his writings were written in such a pragmatic and disinterested manner that helped to reform thoughts. Accompanied with the teachings of his father, James Mill and Jeremy Bentham, the ‘utilitarian reformers’, John determined to work on the development of the utilitarian philosophy. He was an astute propagandist and explicator of those views on human welfare and politics. His views helped construct the new theory of happiness and political system based on the greatest happiness principle. In his essay ‘Utilitarianism’, Mill expresses an awareness of the complicated, varied human experiences.   James Mill and Jer

About the Poet: Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834) was one of the founding figures of the Romantic Movement in England. He was also a member of the Lake Poets. His well known Romantic poems are, Kubla Khan, The Rime of the Ancient Mariner and Christabel.  He was immensely influenced by the ideals of the French Revolution. Ode of France was the last of his poems which was written by him under the influence of the French Revolution.He is also known for his critical writing Biographia Literaria. About the idea: In the chapter XIV of Coleridge’s Biographia Literaria , he used the phrase, ‘willing suspension of disbelief, to describe ‘ the state of receptivity and credulity desirable in a reader or member of an audience’. The reader should be persuaded to believe the evidently imaginary story narrated by the poet. Coleridge possibly adapted the idea from French sceptic Francois de la Monte La Vayer(1588-1672), who referred to the wisdom of the sceptic in his phrase ‘cetle belle

  ‘Natural Selection and Sexual Selection’ in The Descent of   Man by Charles Darwin   About the Author: Charles Robert Darwin, FRS FRGS FLS FZS (born February 12, 1809, Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England—died April 19, 1882, Downe, Kent),   was an English naturalist, geologist and biologist, famous for his contributions to the theory of evolution by natural selection. The English naturalist’s scientific theory of evolution by natural selection became the foundation of modern evolutionary studies. His proposition that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors is now widely accepted, and considered a foundational concept in science Summary of the Introduction of ‘Natural Selection and Sexual Selection’ in The Descent of   Man   Charles Darwin observed the distribution of the inhabitants of South America to scrutinize the geographical relations of the past and present inhabitants of the continent. To study the origin of those species, he accumulated da